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Blockchain Technology

Are Smart Contracts Enforceable

I’ve mentioned the term “smart contract” numerous times in my blogs related to blockchain and distributed ledger technology.  It seems worth drilling down on what exactly a “smart contract” is and whether such a “contract” is enforceable as a legally binding contract.  Smart contracts are generally computer code designed to automatically execute all or part of an agreement that is stored on a blockchain, such as the automatic transfer of assets upon the completion of specific programmed criteria.  A smart contract may be the only agreement between parties, or it may be used to implement all or part of the provisions of a separate written contract.

Since a smart contract is programmed code, it will only perform each step or item of execution when the pre-programmed criteria has been completed.  That is, if “x” occurs, then the code will automatically execute step “y.”  Accordingly, all contractual actions must be capable of being completed within

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July 30, 2019

FinCEN Guidance On Cryptocurrency

In May 2019, the Financial Crime Enforcement Network (FinCEN) issued a thirty-page comprehensive review of its regulations as pertains to convertible virtual currencies.  Previously, in February 2018, FinCEN stated that it expects issuers of initial coin offerings (ICOs) to comply with the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA), including its anti-money laundering (AML) and know your customer (KYC) requirements (see HERE).

In general, entities that are subject to the BSA must: (i) register with FinCEN as a money services business (MSB); (ii) prepare a written AML compliance program that is designed to mitigate risks, including AML risks, and to ensure compliance with all BSA requirements including the filing of suspicious activity reports (SAR) and currency transaction reports; (iii) keep records for certain types of transactions at specific thresholds; and (iv) obtain customer identification information sufficient to comply with the AML program and recordkeeping requirements.

Although the new guidance does not establish any new regulatory requirements, it is the first time

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July 16, 2019

SEC Establishes Analysis Matrix for Digital Assets

On April 3, 2019, the SEC’s Division of Corporation Finance published a “Framework for Investment Contract Analysis of Digital Assets,” issued a No-Action Letter to Turnkey Jet, Inc. and made a statement on both. Although all guidance is appreciated, there is really nothing new or different about the analysis, which is firmly based on SEC v. W.J. Howey Co. (the “Howey Test”).  Moreover, as discussed below, even though the SEC found that Turnkey Jet did not need to comply with the federal securities laws in the issuance and sales of its tokens, the opinion and issued guidelines do not go far enough and still leave a great deal of uncertainty.

Framework for Investment Contract Analysis of Digital Assets

The SEC’s framework sets forth facts and circumstances to be considered in applying the Howey Test to determine if a digital asset is an investment contract and thus a security subject to state and federal securities laws in its

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April 16, 2019

An IPO Without The SEC

On January 23, 2019, biotechnology company Gossamer Bio, Inc., filed an amended S-1 pricing its $230 million initial public offering, taking advantage of a rarely used SEC Rule that will allow the S-1 to go effective, and the IPO to be completed, 20 days from filing, without action by the SEC.  Since the government shutdown, several companies have opted to proceed with the effectiveness of a registration statement for a follow-on offering without SEC review or approval, but this marks the first full IPO, and certainly the first of any significant size. The Gossamer IPO is being underwritten by Bank of America Merrill Lynch, SVB Leerink, Barclays and Evercore ISI. On January 24, 2019, Nasdaq issued five FAQ addressing their position on listing companies utilizing Section 8(a).  Although the SEC has recommenced full operations as of today, there has non-the-less been a transformation in the methods used to access capital markets, and the use of 8(a) is just

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January 29, 2019

The Treasury Department Report To The President On FinTech And Innovation

This summer, the U.S. Department of the Treasury issued a report to President Trump entitled “A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities; Nonbank Financials, Fintech and Innovation” (the “Treasury Report”). The Treasury Report was issued in response to an executive order dated February 3, 2017 which has resulted in a series of such reports. The executive order identified Core Principles and requested the Treasury Department to identify laws, treaties, regulations, guidance, reporting and record-keeping requirements, and other government policies that promote or inhibit federal regulation of the U.S. financial system in a manner consistent with the Core Principles. In response to its directive, the Treasury Department is issuing four reports. For a summary of the Treasury Department Report on Capital Markets, see HERE.

The Core Principles identified in the executive order are:

  1. Empower Americans to make independent financial decisions and informed choices in the marketplace, save for retirement, and build individual wealth;
  2. Prevent taxpayer-funded bailouts;
  3. Foster economic growth and vibrant
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January 22, 2019

SEC Provides Enforcement Driven Guidance On Digital Asset Issuances And Trading

On November 16, 2018, the SEC settled two actions involving cryptocurrency offerings which settlement requires the registration of the digital assets. On the same day, the SEC issued a public statement stating, “[T]hese two matters demonstrate that there is a path to compliance with the federal securities laws going forward, even where issuers have conducted an illegal unregistered offering of digital asset securities.”

The two settled actions, CarrierEQ Inc., known as Airfox and Paragon Coin Inc., both involved an unregistered issuance of a cryptocurrency. In its statement the SEC highlighted three other recent settled actions involving digital assets and, in particular, the actions involving Crypto Asset Management, TokenLot and EtherDelta. The three additional cases involved investment vehicles investing in digital assets and the providing of investment advice, and secondary market trading of digital asset securities.

The SEC has developed a consistent mantra declaring both support for technological innovation while emphasizing the requirement to “adhere to [our] well-established and well-functioning

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December 26, 2018

The SEC’s Strategic Hub For Innovation And Financial Technology

Responding to the growing necessity, in mid-October the SEC launched a Strategic Hub for Innovation and Financial Technology (FinHub). The FinHub will serve as a resource for public engagement on the SEC’s FinTech-related issues and initiatives, such as distributed ledger technology (including digital assets), automated investment advice, digital marketplace financing, and artificial intelligence/machine learning. The FinHub also replaces and consolidates several SEC internal working groups that have been working on these matters.

According to the SEC press release on the matter, the FinHub will:

  • Provide a portal for the industry and the public to engage directly with SEC staff on innovative ideas and technological developments;
  • Publicize information regarding the SEC’s activities and initiatives involving FinTech on the FinHub web page;
  • Engage with the public through publications and events, including a FinTech Forum focusing on distributed ledger technology and digital assets planned for 2019;
  • Act as a platform and clearinghouse for SEC staff to acquire and disseminate information and FinTech-related knowledge
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December 11, 2018

SEC Commissioner Hester Peirce Continues to Support Technology

In three recent speeches, SEC Commissioner Hester Peirce continued to proclaim her support for technological innovation and freedom in capital markets. On September 12, 2018, Ms. Peirce gave a speech at the Cato Institute’s FinTech Unbound Conference which she titled Motherhood and Humble Pie, on September 24 she spoke at the University of Michigan Law School titling her speech Wolves and Wolverines, and then on October 2 she spoke at the Financial Planning Association 2018 Major Firms Symposium, calling that speech Pickups and Put Downs. Besides the great titles, I applaud her content and perspective.

Motherhood and Humble Pie

A prevailing theme in all three speeches centered on her dissent to the SEC’s rejection of an exchange traded product or mutual fund. As an aside, since I wrote this blog on the SEC’s published concerns related to a cryptocurrency-related exchange traded product or mutual fund, HERE, the SEC has continued to deny several more applications for such a product.

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October 30, 2018

Securities Token Or Not? A Case Study – Part III

This is the third part in my three-part series laying out fact patterns and discussing whether a specific digital asset is a security, a utility, currency, commodity or some other digital asset. In Part 1 of the series, I examined a decentralized token that had been issued without any concurrent capital raise and was able to conclude such token was not a security. Part 1 can be read HERE. In Part 2 I examined a token that was issued with the intent of being a utility token, but as a result of the clear speculative motivation for purchasers, and the lack of decentralization, concluded it was a security. Part 2 can be read HERE.

In this Part 3 of the series, I examine the issuance of the Free Token as a dividend and its cousin the Bounty Token. Unlike the prior blogs in this series, which examined the question of whether a particular token is a security, this blog

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October 9, 2018

Securities Token Or Not? A Case Study – Part II

This is the second part in my three-part series laying out fact patterns and discussing whether a specific digital asset is a security, a utility, currency, commodity or some other digital asset. Although the first and easy answer is that if a digital asset is being issued today, it is most assuredly a security upon issuance that needs to comply with the federal securities laws, the answer is not always that straightforward for digital assets that have been in the marketplace for a period of time, such as Bitcoin and Ether, or for new digital assets that are carefully being constructed to fall outside the purview of a securitized token.

In the first part of this series, we examined the Oldie Token and, under the fact pattern presented, was able to determine that the Oldie Token was not a security. Part 1 can be read HERE. In this part we will examine the Functional Token, which has not

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October 2, 2018

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